Among the Buddhist remains in the ancient kingdom of Kucha is a peculiar kind of cave, known as the central pillar cave. Caves of this type are so numerous on the northern route of the Taklamakan that they outnumber the total of caves of the same type throughout the rest of the Buddhist world-clearly showing that this type of cave was a fundamental architecture of the region. Therefore, we name these caves “Kucha-type” central pillar caves. Previous studies have assumed that the Kucha-type central pillar cave was the missing link in the transmission of the Indian caityagṛha to the Northern-Central Chinese pagoda-type cave. In this paper, however, we argue that this was not the case. We compare Kizil Cave 171, a typical Kucha-type central pillar cave, to Yungang Cave 1, a typical pagoda-temple cave, from three different perspectives: architecture, layout of the décor, and iconographic program. We show that there was no direct influence between the two types and suggest that the Indian caityagṛha also had no bearing on the development of the Kucha-type central pillar cave. The paper instead proposes that the three areas developed three different architectural traditions of caves with an unexcavated core that did not directly influence one another. The lack of direct transmission can be attributed to the difference in religious belief and practices, as well as in local architectural traditions.

In academia, there are two main views regarding the era of mural paintings from the main chamber of Cave 10 in the Yulin Grottoes. Most consider that it could be dated back to Xixia, but some believe that it might be the Yuan Dynasty. The core basis of the Xixia view lies in the fact that the two musical instruments held by the flying apsara musicians in the cave are thought to be Xiqin (奚琴) from Xixia, which is a kind of plucked instrument without a bow. But it's clear to see in the mural painting that the two musical instruments have bows. The bowed string instruments were introduced into China from the West Asia and began to be known in the central plains since the Yuan Dynasty. The murals in Cave 10 of Yulin Grottoes are predominated by blue, which was preferred in the Yuan Dynasty, rather than red that was the favorite color in Xixia. The pattern of Loong (龙) appears in the style of West Asian dragon featuring fierceness, which was special in the Yuan Dynasty and totally different from the Loong characterized by tameness in Xixia. On the south of the west wall in the main chamber of Cave 10, a framed inscription by painter records that seven painters from different places painted a “Tantric painting” at the Yulin Grottoes in 1341 (the seventh year of Zhiyuan Reign in the Yuan Dynasty), which is exactly the mural of Cave 10 in the Yulin Grottoes. It's said that the painting was chipped out of the wall afterwards probably for its large number of Tantric images regarding vidyaraja and vidyarajni. In conclusion, the mural of Cave 10 in Yulin Grottoes should be from the Yuan Dynasty.

In Mogao Grottoes, there is an Illustrations of the Vimalakirti Sutra on the upper part of the north and south sides of the west wall of Cave 420 of the Sui Dynasty. Manjusri Bodhisattva on the south and Vimalakirti on the north are seated separately in the center of their own hall that has a gable-and-hip roof (xieshan ding), and down below each hall is a horizontally unfolded lotus pond tableau. In the ponds, there are not only lotus, waterfowl and children coming out of lotus flowers, but also fish, strange rocks, water plants and aquatic organisms. It's rare to see such “lotus pond tableau” in similar Illustrations of the Vimalakirti Sutra in the Sui Dynasty. Moreover, it's quite special when compared to other tableaux of lotus pond in the Dunhuang Grottoes. Apart from its style of the Southern Dynasty and the Central Plains, these two lotus pond tableaux also incorporate elements from India, the Western Regions and even Egypt. It bears witness to the exchange and integration among diversified cultures of Cave 420, and is also one of the main examples of developing paintings themed by lotus pond in the history of flower-and-bird paintings in China.

Unearthed from the site of Xiuding Monastery in Anyang, the Buddhist reliquary dated the fifth year of Tianbao's Reign in the Northern Qi Dynasty (554 CE) is the only extant example of stupa-shaped Buddhist reliquary from the Northern and Southern Dynasties. Its structure, shape and decoration combine the characteristics of Gandharan stupa-shaped reliquaries and porcelains in the later period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, reflecting the frequent cultural communication in the Ye City area of the Northern Qi Dynasty. The inscription on the base of the reliquary records the imperial family's activity of stupa construction and offerings to relics of the Buddha in the Northern Qi Dynasty, as well as the importance of Prajna and Nirvana in relic worship practice of the time. The later inscription engraved in the tenth year of Kaihuang's Reign (590 CE) in the Sui Dynasty is a precious historical record of the rise and fall of the Xiuding Monastery in the Northern Qi and Sui dynasties.

The Thousand-armed Avalokitesvara, which was excavated at Gaobeidian of Hebei Province in China and could be dated back to the first year of the Zhengsheng Era of the Tang Dynasty, is the earliest one all over the country until now. It embodies both the stylistic characteristics and distinctive regional features of sculptures from the early Tang Dynasty. By referencing Buddhist scriptures and drawing upon existing images of multi-armed Avalokitesvara, Chinese craftsmen employed local sculptural traditions by utilizing white marble as the medium and adopting the style integrating the primary statue with the back screen. They innovatively depicted the one-thousand-hand through reliefs of hundreds of small hands, creating an iconic representation of great compassion.

The Buddha statues and engraved scriptures of the Northern Qi Dynasty represented remarkable accomplishments, featuring distinct originality and transitional characteristics. Unlike the slender and elegant statues of the Northern Wei Dynasty or the mature and complete ones of the Tang Dynasty, the statues of the Northern Qi Dynasty presented a unique style of strength and diversity. For instance, the tower-shaped caves of the Xiangtangshan Grottoes in Yecheng and the Buddha statues unearthed in Qingzhou respectively demonstrated the imperial grandeur and the influence of Indian art. The engraved scriptures of the Northern Qi Dynasty also integrated traditional and foreign cultures, marking the initial appearance of large-scale engraved scriptures. This article, through a comprehensive analysis of grottoes, cliff inscriptions and freestanding statues, for the first time comprehensively classified and zoned the Buddha statues and engraved scriptures of the Northern Qi Dynasty. It not only identified the content and form characteristics of each geographical grouping but also revealed the differences and connections among them. It showcases the diversified achievements of Buddhist art in the Northern Qi Dynasty.

The raised-foot posture, originating from ancient Indian ascetic practices, was integrated into Buddhist art due to its association with Shakyamuni’s pre-enlightenment asceticism. In Gandharan art, raised-foot imagery primarily depicted flower garland bearers’ diligent offerings and ascetics’ earnest begging. Through he Silk Road, this imagery spread to the Westem Regions, directly influencing the creation of flower garland bearer figures in Shanshan Kingdom temple murals, and developing more diverse representations in Kucha Kingdom cave murals. Subsequently, raised-foot imagery entered the northern Central Plains through the Hexi Corridor, influencing some cave sculptures and inspiring the creation of native Chinese raised-foot styles. Although raised-foot imagery did not become widely popular in Chinese Buddhist art, its cultural connotations were absorbed, giving rise to multiple related Buddhist terms. The spread and evolution of raised-foot imagery demonstrate the exchange and interaction of diverse cultures along the Silk Road.